American Involvement In The Cuban Revolution Essays -

American Involvement in the Cuban Revolution The revolution in Cuba was not a result of economic deprivation, nor because of high expectations in the economy, it was the political factors and expectations which evoked the civilians to revolt. The Cuban economy was moving forward at the time before the rebellion but the dominant influence of the sugar industry made the economy "assymetrical" and encouraged no "dynamic industrial sector". Because of the dependance on sugar, the unemployment rate ranged between 16 and 20% rising and falling with sugar prices, ebbing and flowing as the season changed. The rural wage levels were incredibly unsteady and unpredictable; the standard of living was low. Dependance on the sugar industry did not retard the economy of Cuba, just the wages of its workers. It was the leaders of the nation who reaped profit from this dependance, and it was the leaders of the nation who insisted on keeping the nation the way it was. By the mid 1950's, however, the middle class had expanded to 33% of the population. Democracy, as we know it, broke down: the large middle class did not assert democratic leadership, there was no social militancy in the working class ranks, and the people found order preferable to disarray. Batista could no longer legitimize his regime . Failure in the elections of 1954 showed the discontent of the people, and failure in communications with the United States illustrated its discontent. Finally, opposing forces confronted Batista's power: there were street protests, confrontations with the police, assault, sabotage, and urban violence. This began the revolution in Cuba. America, with its stubborn ideas and misjudgements of character, forced Castro to turn to the Soviets for alliance and aid. When Castro visited the United States in April, 1959, there were different respected individuals holding different views of him and his future actions. Nixon believed Castro to be naive, some others thought him a welcome change from Batista, still others called him an "immature but effective leader, without a well formed view of how to lead a revolutionary movement and not overly concerned with abstract of philosophical matters" (p. 55). Why, then, did the United States impress nit-picky ideals like "there should not be communists in the Army or in labor", or "Cuba's approach to the Batista trials is totally unacceptable, too casual, too nonchalant" on this "forming" leader? Castro was like an inexperienced murderer with a gun in his hand: any rustle in the background could set off his nervous trigger finger causing death, destruction, and liaisons with the U.S.S.R. When America expressed dislike of the trial procedures Castro was holding, of course he (Castro) would try to prove he was able to run his country by himself and snub the U.S. ambassador. The United States had so much invested in Cuba that it was stupid to think that Cuba could not retaliate when the U.S. cut off sugar imports. America was just too sure of itself thinking it could get away with criticism and acts like that when an "immature" leader was in control. Cuba was not totally dependant on the United States and proved itself so. If Cuba could not find help and support in America, it sought elsewhere for those who smiled on its actions and ideals. Castro found friends in Russia; the United States made this so. Succeeding and failing have alot to do with judgement. For the United States, the revolution was a failure because the result was a communist nation in the Carribean. For the revolutionarie s in Cuba, the revolution accomplished many of their goals: capitalism was abolished and socialism installed eroding class distinctions and eliminating private property, the working conditions improved, women's rights improved, labor unions were recogniz ed, the military became more modern and advanced, political order was restored, the status of the country improved from dependant to independant, and many more. For the people of Cuba, therefore, the revolution can be viewed as a success (if communism ca n be seen as acceptable), but for America, the result was a failure. Latin America is one of the poorest and underdeveloped sections of the world. Because of this fact, it is difficult for its nations to compete and thrive in the world market with modern nations as they struggle to industrialize and improve their status. Capitalism, as a basis for an economy, means that each man has to struggle to make a living, that each man may fail and starve, and that each man may get a lucky break and thrive. We saw this struggle of the lower classes American Involvement In The Cuban Revolution Essays - American Involvement in the Cuban Revolution The revolution in Cuba was not a result of economic deprivation, nor because of high expectations in the economy, it was the political factors and expectations which evoked the civilians to revolt. The Cuban economy was moving forward at the time before the rebellion but the dominant influence of the sugar industry made the economy "assymetrical" and encouraged no "dynamic industrial sector". Because of the dependance on sugar, the unemployment rate ranged between 16 and 20% rising and falling with sugar prices, ebbing and flowing as the season changed. The rural wage levels were incredibly unsteady and unpredictable; the standard of living was low. Dependance on the sugar industry did not retard the economy of Cuba, just the wages of its workers. It was the leaders of the nation who reaped profit from this dependance, and it was the leaders of the nation who insisted on keeping the nation the way it was. By the mid 1950's, however, the middle class had expanded to 33% of the population. Democracy, as we know it, broke down: the large middle class did not assert democratic leadership, there was no social militancy in the working class ranks, and the people found order preferable to disarray. Batista could no longer legitimize his regime . Failure in the elections of 1954 showed the discontent of the people, and failure in communications with the United States illustrated its discontent. Finally, opposing forces confronted Batista's power: there were street protests, confrontations with the police, assault, sabotage, and urban violence. This began the revolution in Cuba. America, with its stubborn ideas and misjudgements of character, forced Castro to turn to the Soviets for alliance and aid. When Castro visited the United States in April, 1959, there were different respected individuals holding different views of him and his future actions. Nixon believed Castro to be naive, some others thought him a welcome change from Batista, still others called him an "immature but effective leader, without a well formed view of how to lead a revolutionary movement and not overly concerned with abstract of philosophical matters" (p. 55). Why, then, did the United States impress nit-picky ideals like "there should not be communists in the Army or in labor", or "Cuba's approach to the Batista trials is totally unacceptable, too casual, too nonchalant" on this "forming" leader? Castro was like an inexperienced murderer with a gun in his hand: any rustle in the background could set off his nervous trigger finger causing death, destruction, and liaisons with the U.S.S.R. When America expressed dislike of the trial procedures Castro was holding, of course he (Castro) would try to prove he was able to run his country by himself and snub the U.S. ambassador. The United States had so much invested in Cuba that it was stupid to think that Cuba could not retaliate when the U.S. cut off sugar imports. America was just too sure of itself thinking it could get away with criticism and acts like that when an "immature" leader was in control. Cuba was not totally dependant on the United States and proved itself so. If Cuba could not find help and support in America, it sought elsewhere for those who smiled on its actions and ideals. Castro found friends in Russia; the United States made this so. Succeeding and failing have alot to do with judgement. For the United States, the revolution was a failure because the result was a communist nation in the Carribean. For the revolutionarie s in Cuba, the revolution accomplished many of their goals: capitalism was abolished and socialism installed eroding class distinctions and eliminating private property, the working conditions improved, women's rights improved, labor unions were recogniz ed, the military became more modern and advanced, political order was restored, the status of the country improved from dependant to independant, and many more. For the people of Cuba, therefore, the revolution can be viewed as a success (if communism ca n be seen as acceptable), but for America, the result was a failure. Latin America is one of the poorest and underdeveloped sections of the world. Because of this fact, it is difficult for its nations to compete and thrive in the world market with modern nations as they struggle to industrialize and improve their status. Capitalism, as a basis for an economy, means that each man has to struggle to make a living, that each man may fail and starve, and that each man may get a lucky break and thrive. We saw this struggle of the lower classes

Morality of Zoos Essays

Morality of Zoos Essays Morality of Zoos Paper Morality of Zoos Paper Almost each and every one of us has grown up with fond childhood memories of visiting the local zoo amongst family and friends. After all, where else can one see animals from all over the world in one place? In the midst of all the fun and enjoyment we have all experienced from zoos, we have failed to take into account the life of the things that we are so excited about seeing there – the animals. Each and every day, the animals enclosed in zoos for human entertainment are exposed to abuse, cruelty, and most importantly stress due to an unnatural living environment, creating a collection of unhappy animals. In this essay, I will also explore other examples of zoos in which animals are used for paid human entertainment such as circuses and aqua parks, where creatures like dolphins are dumped into a small glass pool and forced to perform tricks for merely human satisfaction. This essay will also explore acceptable forms of animal zoos; ones that are used solely for the purpose of breeding and conserving highly endangered species. While it is true that zoos can sometimes be beneficial, and used to aid animals in conservation and breeding, the sad reality is that zoos confine wild animals into tiny, artificial habitats and expose them to great amounts of stress, cruelty and abuse for the purpose of profit and human entertainment. For this reason, modern zoos are immoral and should only be allowed to exist if they are large-scale conservation centers used to aid in the preservation of endangered species. Zoos have become a very hot topic of controversy in today’s world. It is common knowledge that zoos are not the natural habitats of animals. Animals around the world are held captive and kidnapped from their natural life for the duration of their lives solely for the purpose of our viewing pleasure. Zoos can be defined as â€Å"public parks, which display animals, primarily for the purposes of recreation or education,† (Jamieson, Dale). The first modern American zoos were created in Philadelphia and Cincinnati in the 1870s. Today in the United States, there are hundreds of zoos that are visited by millions of people every year. Jamieson, Dale). â€Å"Iron-barred concrete-floored cages† and animals behind bars (Millar, Royce, and Cameron Houston) is a typical sight at many popular zoos. They vary from â€Å"roadside menageries run by hucksters, to elaborate zoological parks staffed by trained scientists† (Jamieson, Dale). Other popular forms of zoos are aqua parks and circuses. Aqua parks such as the Sea World amusement park in F lorida (Singer, Peter) are home to many animals such as whales and dolphins, which are held in captivity and forced to perform tricks and shows for public entertainment. Animals in captivity are forced to abandon all their natural characteristics and instincts. â€Å"It is possible to visit zoos and see bored animals pacing back and forth in cages, with nothing to do but wait for the next meal† (Singer, Peter). Regular meal times means that they no longer have the need to hunt for survival. While this may sound like a good thing, there are a few things to take into account. The first is that the zoo animals, all of which are born natural hunters, will no longer be able to survive and fend for themselves if they are released back into the wild (Zoos: Imprisonment or Preservation). The second is the degree of confinement which zoo animals are forced to live under in their small cages and aquariums. To take this idea into perspective, imagine the world’s fastest animal, the cheetah. When it is crammed in a cage, which no matter how large can never compare to the vast size of the wilderness, the cheetah is unable to run at the fast speeds that make it unique. In the long run, confinement will cause the cheetah’s natural running skills to wear away (Zoos: Imprisonment or Preservation). The same principle can be applied to sea animals confined in aqua parks. No tank, no matter how large can come close to meeting the needs of animals who spend their lives in social groups swimming long distances in the ocean† (Singer, Peter). Taking animals out of their natural habitats, transporting them great distances and keeping them in alienated environments in which their liberty is restricted are examples of how animals taken from the wild and confined in zoos are deprived of many things like gathering their own food, developing their own social orders and behaving in ways natural to them (Jamieson, Dale). Studies have shown that the artificial environment of zoos can create intrinsic animal welfare problems such as self-mutilation, feeding disorders, stereotypical behavior like pacing, neck twisting and rocking, reproductive disorders and physiological disorders (Zoos: Imprisonment or Preservation). A lot of the time, it is typical for an animal to experience these without the public noticing. An example of an animal exhibiting this behavior was a polar bear in the Dublin zoo that howed signs of stress and boredom. Locked in a small cage, the polar bear had nothing to do all day but walk from one side of the enclosure to the other, also known as pacing. Eventually, the animal was moved to a much larger home in the Czech Republic (Zoos: Imprisonment or Preservation). This is evidence that while we may think pacing is a normal behaviour for animals in zoos, the truth is that we don’t know any better and what we think is customary is actually very stressful and harmful to the zoo animals. Contrary to popular belief that zoos are very friendly environments, many people don’t know that â€Å"since 1990, 42 people have been killed and 100 others injured by elephants worldwide† (Zoos: Imprisonment or Preservation). A recent article by philosopher Peter Singer in The Guardian provides a clear example of the stress animals are put through. An orca whale named Tilly; acting out of anger of being held captive in a sterile concrete tank at Florida’s SeaWorld grabbed a trainer, pulled her underwater and killed her. Tilly had also been previously involved in two other human deaths at SeaWorld. In addition, one of Tilly’s offspring, which was sold to an amusement park in Spain, also killed a trainer. There have also been many other instances of orcas involved in deaths (Singer, Peter). â€Å"We will never know exactly what was going on in Tilly’s mind, but we do know that he has been in captivity since he was about two years old – he was captured of the east coast of Iceland in 1983. Orcas are social mammals, and he would have been living with his mother and other relatives in a pod. It is reasonable to suppose that the sudden separation was traumatic for Tilly† (Singer, Peter). It has been argued that circuses, especially those on the road, are even worse places for animals. Their living conditions are said to be â€Å"deplorable† (Singer, Peter), particularly in travelling circuses where animal cages have to be extremely small in order to be able to go on the road. Furthermore, circuses have been known to be brutal because â€Å"training animals to perform tricks often involves starvation and cruelty. Undercover investigations have repeatedly shown animals being beaten and given electric shocks† (Singer, Peter). Countries such as Austria, Costa Rica, Denmark, Israel, India and Sweden have banned or severely restricted the use of wild animals in circuses (Singer, Peter). The conditions animals are exposed to in circus environments clearly lead to the intrinsic welfare problems described earlier. An example of this was seen in Brazil, where â€Å"a movement to ban wild animals from circuses stared after hungry lions managed to grab and devour a small boy† (Singer, Peter). The most common benefits of zoos are amusement, education, and the preservation of species. Amusement was certainly an important reason for the establishment of the early zoos, and it remains an important function of contemporary zoos as well† (Jamieson, Dale). The fact remains that most people visit zoos in order to be entertained. Unfortunately, zoos must provide amusement to the public in order to stay profitable. Even though entertaining the public is viewed as a very important function of zoos, it cannot be justified as a reason to keep wild animals imprisoned and held in captivity. The second reason for having zoos is education. The idea that education is a big part of having zoos is â€Å"part of the commercial entertainment industry† (Singer, Peter). â€Å"The most important lesson they teach impressionable young minds is that it is acceptable to keep animals in captivity for human amusement† (Singer, Peter). This is the exact opposite of the attitudes we should be embedding in the young minds of children. Of course some learning takes place in zoos. However, the very lessons being learned about the physical and mental states of animals being held captive are certainly not beneficial, and should not require animals to be held captive. Furthermore, similar educational experiences can be achieved through films and lectures. Documentaries such as The Life of Animals and The Blue Planet are known to be very educational and can in fact provide a better understanding of animals in their true, natural habitats. Observing animals in their natural surroundings will also allow for a better understanding of survival tactics, hunting, and the food chain, all of which are abandoned as soon as a wild animal is brought into a zoo. The final reason for having zoos is that they preserve soon-to-be extinct species, and put breeding programs in place to re-populate the species. There are several problems associated with zoo breeding programs. As previously mentioned, captive animals have very different traits than the ones of surviving animals in the wild. The lack of genetic diversity among the captive animals can create an enormous problem in breeding; more particularly it conflicts with Darwin’s theory of survival of the fittest. Perhaps the biggest problem with zoo breeding programs is that they created unwanted animals. In certain species, only a few males can service an entire herd of animals in reproduction. All the extra males are unnecessary to zoos and become a financial burden (Jamieson, Dale). â€Å"Some of these animals are sold and wind up in the hands of individuals and institutions which lack proper facilities† (Jamieson, Dale). Others end up shot and killed by hunters and poachers in private camps. â€Å"Ninety-five percent of animals that are kept in zoos aren’t endangered† (Zoos: Imprisonment or Preservation). With preservation of soon-to-be extinct species also comes the debate whether it really is better for animals to live in the artificial environments that we create for them, as opposed to becoming extinct. Is it really better to confine a few hapless Mountain Gorillas in a zoo than to permit the species to become extinct? † (Jamieson, Dale). The answer to this question may be obvious to many, however, in doing this, are we not using the animals as â€Å"vehicles for their genes†? (Jamieson, Dale). In preserving extinct species, we are e ssentially creating a new species that can only survive in artificial zoo habitats. Even if the above-mentioned problems were non-existent, the current system of zoos does not provide a suitable environment for the preservation of endangered species. The reason for this is that of the little breeding programs that zoos offer, they only breed animals that are not endangered. â€Å"Many of the major breeding programs are run in special facilities which have been established for that purpose. They are often located in remote places, far from the attention of zoo-goers† (Jamieson, Dale). For example, the Bronx Zoo operates its Rare Animal Survival Centre far away on St. Catherine’s Island off the coast of Georgia. In conclusion, taking animals out of the wild and placing them in captivity in zoos affects their welfare and causes the animals unnecessary stress and anger. This disruption of their natural lifestyle has caused many animals to fatally injure or kill humans in an attempt to release some of the anger caused by their confinement in small, artificial habitats. Even though it is true that zoos provide amusement and entertainment, education, even though animals are not in their natural environment and learning may be distorted, and small-scale preservation, the above-mentioned reasons for having a zoo do not outweigh the detrimental affects captivity has on a wild animal. Under no circumstance should the amusement and entertainment of humans be a eason to put animals through stress and deprive them of their natural skills and environment. Even though some may believe that soon are beneficial for education, they are overlooking the fact that animals held captive in zoos are not in their natural habitats; therefore they do not behave as they normally would in the wild, making learning biased. Finally, even though it is a controversial topic, I b elieve preservation should be the only reason to keep animals captive. However, this cannot be done in the zoos we have established today. Preservation of endangered species can only be done in large-scale off-shore reserves, which are far away from the public and allow the animals to roam more freely and practice their natural skills. Animal Cruelty Zoos. Vegan Peace. Web. 29 Oct. 2011. veganpeace. com/animal_cruelty/zoos. htm. BBC Ethics Animal Ethics: Animals for Entertainment. BBC. Web. 29 Oct. 2011. bbc. co. uk/ethics/animals/using/entertainment_1. shtml. Birth, Accident Of. Mortality as Morality. Microkhan by Brendan I. Koerner. 14 Aug. 2009. Web. 30 Oct. 2011. lt; microkhan. com/2009/08/14/mortality-as-morality/. Jamieson, Dale. Against Zoos. The Animal Rights Library. Web. 18 Nov. 2011. animal-rights-library. com/texts-m/jamieson01. htm. Kuehn, Bridget M. Is It Ethical to Keep Animals in Zoos? December 1, 2002. American Veterinary Medical Association. 1 Dec. 2002. Web. 29 Oct. 2011. avma. org/onlnews/javma/dec02/021201d. asp. Millar, Royce, and Cameron Houston. Animal Rights and Wrongs In Depth T heage. com. au. The Age Business, World Breaking News | Melbourne, Australia. The Age, 19 Jan. 008. Web. 30 Oct. 2011. theage. com. au/news/in-depth/animal-rights-and-wrongs/2008/01/18/1200620207184. html? page=fullpage. Singer, Peter. Let Wild Animals Be Wild | Peter Singer | Comment Is Free | Guardian. co. uk. Latest News, Sport and Comment from the Guardian | The Guardian. 8 Mar. 2010. Web. 18 Nov. 2011. guardian. co. uk/commentisfree/cif-green/2010/mar/08/wild-animals-captivity-seaworld-orca. Zoos: Imprisonment or Preservation? The Whyville Times. 4 July 2003. Web. 19 Nov. 2011. http://j. whyville. net/smmk/whytimes/article? id=2941.

Strategic management of human resources management Essay

Strategic management of human resources management - Essay Example This type of relationship exist between co-workers, and between workers and supervisors, they help employees to listen to others, understanding of acceptance, team building, understanding of workers life issues, avoiding discrimination and in conflict resolution. Employment partnership-it can be defined as the way partnership is developed in the work place and this type of partnership has been seen to help an organisation to be more productive. It involves building strong bonds of relationship in an organisation. Employment partnership is a way forward in integrating employees, such relationships play a major role in environmental scanning, and this can be viewed as the identifying and analyzing external opportunities and threats that may be crucial to the company's success. This partnership is beneficial to the worker and the organization, workers have different needs and therefore their benefits and job security are major determinants of their performance. Consultation of workers is also a major determinant of performance; the employees should be briefed and involved in decision making of an organization. Workers should be allowed to raise their views and opinions in decision making. Communication with employees should include discussion on the overall progress, agreeing on potential progress, discussing how current performance is in line with the long term goals and planning on actions to be undertaken to improve the organization current state. HOW EMPLOYEE.PARTNERSHIP FIT WITH SHRM The main goal of forming these relationships in an organization is to improve on productivity and efficiency of the organization. This will help in reviewing on the overall progress, an organization that creates an environment based on understanding; better communication and honesty will be successful. The company is in a position to resolve conflicts that result and therefore this does not affect its performance. The relationships that exist helps achieve goals because they help match personal needs with work life. This type of relationships help build trust in the work place, training is the most useful tool in forming this type of partnership because attitude change is difficult and therefore t

Strategic Planning in Spokane Washington Case Study

Strategic Planning in Spokane Washington - Case Study Example The purpose of these regular meetings was to brainstorm rather than implement any long-term solutions. Chief Manga figured that the organization’s leaders are in a better position to suggest changes rather that through the central police department. The group was turned into a Strategic Planning Committee that could communicate between the different actors in the SPD. Chief Manga was trying to instill a corporate culture that was based on mutual trust and understanding rather than fear. An added benefit of this was that committee members felt confident enough to share any concerns because there was no chance of any repercussions. Instead of taking the lead role, Chief Manga acted more as a sounding board to let committee members bounce ideas off him. When determining the department’s values, Chief Manga allowed everyone one in the department to contribute towards it. Whenever a set of department values are created, it is always best to include everyone in the decision-m aking process because they will be the ones to carry out those values on a daily basis. In the same way, the vision statement also provided a path for the SPD to follow and allow the department to take ownership of it. Chief Manga also encouraged innovation on all levels because it would help to improve the efficiency of the department. The Strategic Planning Committee helped to form community policing into defined responsibilities that would improve all tasks throughout the department. A result of this was that the department should be working more closely with those in the community. Chief Manga also knew the importance of originality, so he gave authority to individuals who demonstrated innovation by allowing them the freedom to design new programs. This was not restricted by rank and was inclusive of everyone working in the department. In conclusion, Chief Manga adopted an

American industry during the era from the late 19th century to the Essay

American industry during the era from the late 19th century to the 1930s - Essay Example The prime purpose of the paper is to present and discuss about the influence of managers and workers towards controlling of wage structure and application of newly used methods other than strike. The history of labour in United States is determined as the history of working people and organized labour. The umbrella labour federations of organized unions consist of citywide federations and AFL-CIO have merged, evolved, split, participate and fought against the periodic federal government interference and changing priorities. In 1894, Samuel Gompers was elected as AFL-CIO leader. At the time of emergence of mechanization, it has become pivotal to replace machines from highly skilled craftspeople. At the time of late 19th century to early part of 20th century, most of the Americans left small towns and farms to work in factories which was effectively categorized by steep hierarchy and organized by mass production. The effect of industrialization has been enormous on working people and result of the alteration of worker lead to the increase in the competition of jobs, loss of the bargaining power and lack of personality on relationships between employer-employee in any new organization1. Unskilled labours were paid less. Moreover, the working condition was often dangerous and unhealthy. The increase of industrialization and rapid upsurge of economic growth meant that percentage of wages growth from 1860 to 1890 in United States was around 60%2. The wage structures for American skilled workers are much higher than that of other countries in Europe. Under the leadership of Samuel Gompers, the Federation of Organized Labour and Trade Unions came in to existence. It has been estimated that between year 1881 and 1905, more than 37,000 strikes were organized by the labour unions. The influence of managers and workers has been supreme towards the formation of strikes. The main goal for occurrence of routine events of

The Struggle Between Presidential And Congressional Powers

The Struggle Between Presidential And Congressional Powers The process of passing legislation in the United States starts at with Congress and has to ultimately be approved by the president unless bypassed by with a two-thirds veto. The ability of an administration to pass or prevent legislation is one of the things that form the basis for an evaluation of a terms efficiency. However, what must be considered when evaluating a presidents efficiency is the ability to influence Congress, the makeup of Congress itself, and the issue at hand. Another responsibility that both Congress and the Presidency both share is the making of foreign policy. A president dealing with having to pass legislation and dealing with war demonstrates how a president deals with a pressurized situation. These aspects of the government and the ongoing conflicts that occurred will be analyzed in this paper. Analyzing the influence that the president has over Congress gives more information on how the president has to push past the limitations of his office in order to push a political agenda. The role of presidency and Congress regarding to the making of foreign policy illustrates whether the President or Congress truly has authority to act during times of conflict. Gaining a better understanding of these issues gives insight into which office better contemplates the long term welfare of our country, which has more understanding of the power of the U.S. military, and the statement it sends around the world when the military engages in conflict. I was personally interested in this topic because of my own interest and lack of understanding of foreign policy procedure. This research project provided me with an opportunity to understand the authority and the history in foreign policy making. In this paper, I hope to gain the knowledge I desire in this topic to ensure issues of war or foreign policy will be much clearer to me in the next presidential election. Literature Review Separation of Powers: According to American Government: Power and Purpose, the colonies needed to create a government in opposition to the tyrannical rule of King George after declaring their independence. The Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union were the first written American Constitution as well as the weakest. Under the Articles of Confederation, there was no executive branch or judicial branch and Congress was the entire basis for central government. Congress at this time was given the power to declare war, make peace, treaties, alliances, and appoint the senior officers of the U.S Army, but the execution of those powers were diminished by the fact that the appointed army officers had no army they were in direct command of because the military was made up of state militias. With each state being in charge of their territory, this made the process of collective action that much harder (Lowi, 2002). To strengthen the central government, and in turn strengthen the United States, the delegates met to initially reform the Articles of Confederation, but this would latter convene in Philadelphia in May 1787 to create a more efficient and effective government. The convention eventually led to the creation of the current U.S. constitution. Under this U.S Constitution, the government would utilize a constitutional principle known as the separation of powers to divide the government into three branches in an effort to ensure that the new government wouldnt infringe the rights of the people, The judicial branch was created to guard against infringement of the rights of the people, legislative to make the laws that the people abide by, and the executive branch was created to counter the impasse formed by the other constitutional principles used to prevent excessive democracy (Lowi, 2002) Unlike the Congress under the Articles of Confederation, Congress was made up of two chambers; the House of Representatives to be directly responsible for the people and the Senate to check the House and make it easier for the House not to completely conform to popular preferences (Lowi, 2002). Article I Section 8 of the U.S Constitution list the expressed powers of Congress, such as declaring war and maintaining military services (Lowi, 2002). Article II of the U.S Constitution states that the Executive Branchs power resides in the president. It also states that the president is indirectly elected, and how he is the Commander-in-Chief of the U.S Army and Navy (Lowi, 2002). The separation of powers was established to ensure that three branches would be equal, but the struggle is most apparent between Congress and the Presidency (Lowi, 2002). Out of all the powers the president has, his job as Commander-in-Chief of the U.S Armed Services is one of the most important, yet the president is not solely responsible for the military in times of conflict. This power of military authority is a similar power to that of Congress to maintain military services and to declare war. It is these military powers that cause foreign policy to fluctuate and impacts how the executive branch influences congress to get their way. Presidents Influence On Congress A common misconception with the relationship between Congress and the Executive branch is that the president and Congress deal with each other directly on a constant basis, when in actuality, the president getting personally involved only occurs as a last resort (Collier, 1997). The center of Congress and President relations in the White House is the White House Office of Legislative Affairs whose role is to send administration lobbyist to Congress to gain information about legislation, persuading the reluctant, and to relay the information theyve gathered back to the executive branch (Collier, 1997). The role of the executive office in regards to Congressional influence is demonstrated by both the George H.W. Bush and Clinton Administration. As a former congressman, President George H.W. Bush understood the need for working with Congress to pass legislation and choose a staff with good congressional experience and welcomed members of Congress like friends and family. Bush said that he planned to Reagans legislative strategy, but lacked in that regard because of his friendliness towards them (Collier, 1997). He was often criticized for not going over the heads of his friends and by the end of his administration Bush was frustrating to both parties because of his interest in foreign policy which wasnt shared by the people or lawmakers. He lacked both a strong domestic agenda and the Republican majority, yet he still chooses to focus on foreign policy (Collier, 1997). This would ultimately drive home the point of his lack of connection to the public and caused both the lost of public respect and his lack of respect of authority by Congress. Rather than being authoritative, Bush relied merely on the friendships he establishe d versus his position as president. President Bushs biggest foreign policy dilemma stemmed from the Persian Gulf War which compelled Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait (Peterson, 1994) which would ultimately lead to a victory. President Bill Clinton was willing to associate with Congress, but after personally rallying bargaining for votes on his stimulus package, he had to learn how to not get too involved so as to nor appear desperate. The presidents communications skills in his 1996 state of the Union Address allowed him to convey his position and place the Republican congressman at a disadvantage (Collier, 1997). As the Republicans tried to implement their own plan to fix the economy, they underestimated Clinton and ultimately made it easier for him to implement his version of the plan to fix the economy. Regarding foreign policy, Clinton had to deal with the interest group campaign against the ratification of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) which Congress disagreed with until the President implemented clauses that would protect American Jobs. Another foreign policy issue that would not be further evaluated until the terrorist attacks on September 11 was the threat of terrorism Osama Bin Laden that Clinton faced during his administration. During August 7, 1998, Bin Ladens forces struck the United States embassies in Kenya and Tanzania; this would cause Clinton to respond with seventy nine missile strikes on Bin Ladens outposts. Clinton would also send a letter to Congress stating that his actions were justified by his authority in U.S. foreign relations and as the Commander-in-Chief (Hendrickson, 2002). Rather than simply ignoring Congress altogether, he started to pull them into the decision making process more which ultimately helped him to not only gain support from the majority of Congressman, but cause Newt Gingrich to help garner support through his Republican allies. It was President Clintons decision to include Congress in the decision making that gained the trust of Congress, who in turn allowed President Clinton some leeway in making military decisions (Hendrickson, 2002). After the terrorist attacks of September 11, President George W. Bush declared war on terror and was regarded as an American response when compared to the European perception that the attacks were matters of law enforcement (Ball, 2007). This assertion in the war on terror served to prove what both Bush and Dick Cheney believed; the powers of the U.S. President are limitless in the war on terror. This would also be reinforced by Congress passing a joint resolution drafted by the White House which allowed Bush to battle any nation, organization, or person he determined to have been involved in 9/11. This would also lead Congress passing the Iraq Joint Resolution which falsely claimed that Iraq was involved in 9/11 and that they were in possession of weapons of mass destruction (Ball, 2007). Foreign Policy Powers The foreign Policy Powers of the United States stem from the U.S. Constitution. Although the president is the Commander-in-Chief of the U.S military, the Constitution was set up to prevent the president from being the sole authority on U.S foreign policy issues (Peterson, 1994). The president only has the exclusive power to receive ambassadors, execute the laws that Congress passes, and to grant pardons (Lowi, 2002). The title of Commander-in-Chief doesnt actually grant any specific powers. The expressed powers of foreign policy that lie with Congress are the authority to raise an army, prepare for the common defense, and to declare war. Aside from the control already established, Congress has the ability to hinder the presidents power by their control over the budget which is referred to as the power of the purse. One of the things included in the budget is the military funding; meaning the president needs both the approval of Congress to go to war and the proper budget to go to war (Lowi, 2002). Even though it would appear that most if the control in foreign policy making is given to Congress, Congress rarely exercises these powers. The norm seems to be for Congress to just conform to the demands of the President. This is especially apparent when examining the legislation that was passed under the George W. Bush Administration. The President also has its ways of circumventing Congress in terms of foreign policy by executive agreements. Of the two chambers of Congress, The Senate has the authority of forming treaties and alliances and if the President wishes to implement a treaty he must have it approved by Senate with a two-thirds majority vote, but executive agreements allow the president to make an agreement with another country that has the same effectiveness as a treaty, but doesnt need the Senates approval. Statement of Research There are multitudes of ways in which Congress and the Executive branch can override each other and are forced to compromise. Making foreign policy is the issue that theses two branches seem to struggle with the most. The powers they have give them the potential to outrank each other in that regard. The president is the Commander-in-Chief of the U.S. and because of the broadness of this title, has no expressed powers he is bound to. Congress has the expressed power and the authority to raise an army, prepare for the common defense, and to declare war. In times of crisis such as 9/11 and the Iraq war, the power of the U.S President tends to increase as Congress conforms to the Presidents agenda in an effort to make a stance for the country. This time of unity between the two branches of government appears to be at its best when regarding the war on terror. The inquiry addresses the following: How has the evolution of presidential influence correlated to the making of foreign policy during the Bush-Clinton Era? How has the war on terror correlated to the foreign policy power balance between the Presidency and Congress? These two questions are significant because they address the issues of divided government and the making of foreign policy. These two elements of our government are the most crucial aspects that can either encourage or strain relations between the White House and Capitol Hill. The two questions not only provide insight into the foreign policy, but an analysis of the events that led up to the Iraq invasion and the war on terror. Research Findings Inquiry Question #1 The making of foreign policy is one of the main subjects in which Capitol Hill and the White House struggle to reach middle ground. As presidential administrations have passed, the executive branchs influence seems to fluctuate depending on the type of president and the different political parties that the president is a part of and whether or not Congress is of the same party. This fact leads back to the question of how the evolution of presidential influence correlated to the making of foreign policy during the Bush-Clinton Era. In order to find out how the evolution of presidential influence correlated to the making of foreign policy during the Bush-Clinton Era, the answer must come from an analysis of the three presidencies in question; George H.W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and George W. Bush. President George H.W. Bush, who could have directly launched an attack on Iraq to deal with the Iraq invasion of Kuwait, went to Congress for authorization to use military force against Iraq (Tushnet, 2005). This political behavior was contrary to the quiet, behind the scenes approach to leading Congress which was ultimately was done not by the President himself, who as a former Congressman was very friendly in Congress, but by the staff (Collier, 1997). The Iraq war that President George W. Bush declared in 2002 stemmed from the basis of the congressional authorization of the Gulf War in 1991 (Peterson, 1994). The Gulf War finds similarities to the military actions of President Clinton in his use of the War Powers Resolution in Somalia Bosnia. The first foreign policy challenge under the Clinton administration came at the hands of the incident that was arising in Somalia with the chaos caused by wide-scale dissatisfaction with the leadership of Siad Barre and the clan violence that was increasing under men like Mohammed Aideed (Hendrickson, 2002). President Clinton and Congress supported Operation Restore Hope to use American forces abroad to restore order to the Somalia which Clinton did with both congressional approval and the U.N.s approval as well. The situation in Haiti came from the oppressive rule of Lt. General Raoul Cedras who came into power by staging a coup against Catholic priest Jean Bertrand Aristide (Hendrickson, 2002). President responded by arguing that the instability that was occurring in Haiti was a direct threat to the national security interest of the U.S. This led to the U.N. authorizing the U.S. to end the dictatorship occurring in Haiti, but was initiated by President Clinton who made an effort to inform congress of the developing situation (Hendrickson, 2002). President George W. Bush faced no greater foreign policy in his administration than he did after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. In the face of the attacks by Al-Qaeda, President Bush announced a war on terrorism that sought not only to bring those responsible for the 9/11 terrorist attacks to justice, but demonstrated a very broad government action that would allow Bush to pass and enforce questionable legislation such as the Iraq Joint Resolution and The Authorization for Use of Military Force (AUMF) which gave President Bush the authority to fight anyone he thought was involved in the terrorists attacks of 9/11 (Ball, 2007). After review this information, the only answer that can be concluded is that the presidents influence on Congress has greatly affected the making of foreign policy as well as the tendency of Congress to give power to the president during the Bush-Clinton Era, even when the presidents claims of threats of national security do not pan out, such as the example with the Iraq Joint Resolution which would later be very unnecessary and even a blatant case of mistaken identity regarding those who were involved with the terrorist attacks of 9/11. Whenever there is an issue regarding foreign policy involving military action, the president is given the power to do what he wishes within reason. However, this does not apply when the country has to make a stance on a subject such as terrorism. Inquiry Question #2 Whenever the U.S. has to deal with acts of terrorism that threaten our safety as citizens, the presidents and Congress have been known to work together and pass legislation that at times of peace would take a much longer time to process and contemplate. Legislation like the Iraq Joint Resolution and AUMF would not have been passed in a time of peace. This one incident questions not only what America is willing to do bring terrorist organizations to justice, but how the war on terror correlated to the foreign policy power balance between the Presidency and Congress. This can only be analyzed by an in-depth look in the events that lead to the war on terror, but what was done after the war on terror was declared. The problem with terrorism finds their beginnings in the George W. Bush administration, but the what lead to that were the terrorist attacks of 9/11 which were spearheaded by the leader of Al-Qaeda; Osama Bin Laden. President Clinton dealt with the terrorist attacks of Osama Bin Laden when they struck the embassies in Kenya and Tanzania. President Clinton would then strike Bin Ladens outpost with missiles and would work to gain more intelligence on Bin Ladens actions as well as authorizing the CIA to apprehend and interrogate Bin Laden or to kill him if capture was impossible (Hendrickson, 2002). Congress supported his ideas in all instances in his efforts to stop Bin Laden and was especially supportive of him when he justified his initial actions as the commander-and-chief of the United States, yet still chose to include Congress in their decisions regarding him. Of course at the time, Osama Bin Laden and terrorism in general, was not regarded as one of the central threats to the U.S. (Hendrickson, 2002). President George W. Bush responded to the 9/11 terrorists attacks with the declaration of the War on terror. The broad term would be followed by the AUMF which gave the president free reign to make any attack on anyone he perceived to be connected to the terrorist attacks of 9/11 (Ball, 2007). This idea of terrorist striking at anytime also allowed him to do things that could only be done with court approval like intercepting international calls and emails between people who were allegedly connected to Al-Qaeda, which is unconstitutional without a court order (Ball, 2007). Congress initially agreed to majority of the bills that Bush wanted to sign into law to combat the terrorist threat. However, when this began to conflict with some of the rights of the people, both Congress tried to step in only to be usurped by Vice-President Cheney, who was the 1st president to use his ability to expand theory of presidential authority by saying that Congress cannot limit the power the president has over the military nor can they pass laws that give government officials of the executive branch the power to act independently of the president (Ball, 2007). Upon reviewing the information presented, it can only be concluded that the war on terror has shifted the power of foreign policy to the president. President George W. Bush used the war on terror to not only attack all those who were allegedly involved with 9/11 but to expand it into a war that had nothing to do with the terrorist attacks of 9/11. The same power was also experience by President Clinton when he used his title as commander-and-chief to his advantage and tried his best to eliminate the threat that Osama Bin Laden posed towards the U.S.

Teaching - Every Day Brings Something New :: College Admissions Essays

Teaching - Every Day Brings Something New I started seriously thinking about what I wanted to do with my life, concerning my career, in the 11th grade. From my junior year until my first semester in college, I was certain my purpose in life was to teach. However, people I spoke with, including some family, friends, and even schoolteachers, repeatedly crushed this choice: "Why would you want to be a teacher? Don't you know how much they make? Why would you want to deal with bratty kids all day? Don't you know teaching is one of the most stressful jobs you can have?" Being the naà ¯ve, 17 year old that I was, I listened, and changed my career choice-3 times! I went through 2 years of computer classes to become an administrative assistant, 1 year studying law for paralegalism and 1  ½ years focusing on business management. Throughout those 4 years of unfulfillment, the idea of teaching still lingered in my head. I started asking myself why I decided teaching was not for me. I discovered that even though teaching did ca rry a few negative aspects, they could never come close to the positive. For the past 5 years, I have been coaching the varsity dance team at Woodhaven High School. Although there have definitely been some difficult, stressful situations, I have found the experience very rewarding. The greatest thing about coaching is the satisfaction you feel after a student succeeds in what he or she has set out to accomplish-not only physically, but also mentally. Being a coach is more than just a 9 to 5 job. It's more than staring at a computer for 8-10 hours, not caring about the people around you or your work. This is even more apparent in teaching in a classroom 5 days a week, for as much as 7-9 hours a day. Teaching is adventurous, challenging, and exciting, because every day brings something new. As a teacher, you're not only working for a living, you are acting as a role model to every child around you. A teacher has the chance to change a child's life everyday. The main element of lifelong learning is to never stop learning. One must understand that there's no such thing as a person who knows everything.

The Crucible- Compare and Contrast Reverend Hale and Reverend Parris

Taylor Orr Mrs. Blakley AP English III-3 16 November 2012 Reverend Hale vs Reverend Parris Arthur Miller’s play The Crucible is a compelling look at the witch hunts in Salem, Massachusetts in 1692. In the play, Reverend Hale and Reverend Parris play major roles in the town and influence a shrewd of characters. They both have a number of job duties and responsibilities in common. As well as have a variation in personality, attitude, changes in the play and different roles at the end of the play.In the beginning of the play Reverend Parris is struggling with his daughter Betty – which has become â€Å"inert†. When asked if the cause of her behavior is due to witchery with Abigail in the forest, Parris refuses to have it as though it will stain his clean reputation, â€Å"But if you trafficked with spirits in the forest I must know now, for surely my enemies will, and they will ruin me with it. †(1038).Reverend Parris’s personality is too overcome with the thoughts of others, to be a leader of the town he acts more like a puppet , â€Å"I cannot go before the congregation when I know you have not opened with me. †(1038). Proctor says of Parris: â€Å". . . the last meeting I were at you spoke so long on deeds and mortgages I thought it were an auction† (841). Reverend Hale, on the other hand, is more of a strong leader. Hale is more compelled to find the truth and accept it, no matter positive or negative, â€Å"We shall need hard study if it comes to tracking down the Old Boy[Devil]. †

Laurie Halse Anderson - Award Winning Young Adult Author

Laurie Halse Anderson - Award Winning Young Adult Author When Laurie Halse Anderson was Born: October 23, 1961 in Potsdam, New York Her Background: Anderson grew up in Northern New York and from an early age loved to write. She attended Georgetown University and graduated with a degree in languages and linguistics. After graduation she worked several different jobs including cleaning banks and working as a stockbroker. Anderson did some writing as a freelance reporter for newspapers and magazines and worked for the Philadelphia Inquirer. She published her first book in 1996 and has been writing ever since. Anderson is married to Scot Larabee and together they have four children. (Source: Scholastic) Laurie Halse Anderson’s Books: Anderson’s writing career is prolific. She’s written picture books, fiction for young readers, nonfiction for young readers, historical fiction, and young adult books. Here are some of her most well-known books for teens and tweens. Speak (Speak, 2006. ISBN: 9780142407325) Read Speak Review Twisted (Speak, 2008. ISBN: 9780142411841) Fever, 1793 (Simon and Schuster, 2002. ISBN: 9780689848919) Prom (Puffin, 2006. ISBN: 9780142405703) Catalyst (Speak, 2003. ISBN: 9780142400012) Wintergirls (Turtleback, 2010. ISBN: 9780606151955) Chains (Atheneum, 2010. ISBN: 9781416905868) Forge(Atheneum, 2010. ISBN: 9781416961444) For a complete list of all her books, including out of print books, visit the Laurie Halse Andersons  Web site. Awards and Recognition: Anderson’ s award list is long and continues to grow. Besides being a New York Times bestselling author and having her books listed multiple times on the American Library Association’s many teen lists, she has received starred reviews from the Horn Book, Kirkus Reviews, and School Library Journal. Her most prestigious awards are the following: Speak 1999 National Book Award Finalist2000 Printz Honor bookEdgar Allan Poe Award Finalist Chains   2008 National Book Award Finalist2009 Scott O’Dell Award for Historical Fiction   Catalyst  Ã‚     2002 Odyssey Book Award   (Source: Authors 4 Teens Web site) In 2009 Anderson received the American Library Association’s Margaret A. Edwards Award for significant and lasting achievement in young adult literature. The award focused specifically on Anderson’s books Speak, Fever 1793, and Catalyst. Censorship and Banning Controversies: Some of Anderson’s books have been challenged based on their content. The book Speak is listed by the American  Library Association as one of the top 100 books challenged between the years 2000-2009 and has been banned from some middle and high schools for sexuality, situations of suicidal thoughts in teens, and gritty teenage situations.  School Library Journal interviewed Anderson about Speak after a Missouri man tried to get it banned.  According to Anderson, there was a huge outpouring of support with people  posting comments and stories.  Anderson also received several requests for interviews and comments.  (Source: School Library Journal) Anderson takes a strong stance against censorship and discusses the topic along with her books on her Web site. Movie Adaptations: A movie adaption of Speak was made in 2005 starring Kristen Stewart of Twilight fame. The Author Online: Anderson stays in touch with her fans and provides materials for teachers and librarians on her Web site. Laurie Halse Anderson Trivia: Anderson milked cows and worked on a dairy farm to earn money for college.She loves listening to Mozart’s’ Requiem.A motto that Anderson lives by is: When life gets tough, pick up a book and read. (Source: Simon and Schuster Web site)

Origin of the Roman Satire Genre

Origin of the Roman Satire Genre Roman literature began as an imitation of the Greek literary forms, from the epic stories of Greek heroes and tragedy to the poem known as an epigram. It was only in satire that the Romans could claim originality since the Greeks never split satire off into its own genre. Satire, as invented by the Romans, had a tendency from the beginning towards social criticism- some of it quite nasty- which we still associate with satire. But the defining characteristic of Roman satire was that it was a medley, like a modern revue. Menippean Satire The Romans produced two types of satire. Menippean satire was frequently a parody, blending prose and verse. The first use of this was the Syrian Cynic philosopher Menippus of Gadara (fl. 290 B.C.). Varro (116-27 B.C.) brought it into Latin. The Apocolocyntosis (Pumpkinification of Claudius), attributed to Seneca, a parody of the deification of the drooling emperor, is the only extant Menippean satire. We also have large segments of the Epicurean satire/novel, Satyricon, by Petronius. Verse Satire The other and more important type of satire was the verse satire. Satire unqualified by Menippean usually refers to the verse satire. It was written in dactylic hexameter meter, like epics. Its stately meter partly accounts for its relatively high place in the hierarchy of poetry quoted at the beginning. Founder of the Genre of Satire Although there were earlier Latin writers instrumental in developing the genre of satire, the official founder of this Roman genre is Lucilius, of whom we have only fragments. Horace, Persius, and Juvenal followed, leaving us many complete satires about the life, vice, and moral decay they saw around them. Antecedents of Satire Attacking the foolish, a component of ancient or modern satire, is found in Athenian Old Comedy whose sole extant representative is Aristophanes. The Romans borrowed from him and other than extant Greek writers of comedy, Cratinus, and Eupolus, according to Horace. The Latin satirists also borrowed attention-grabbing techniques from Cynic and Skeptic preachers whose extemporaneous sermons, called diatribes, could be embellished with anecdotes, character sketches, fables, obscene jokes, parodies of serious poetry, and other elements also found in Roman satire.

Book report for the catcher in the rye Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Book report for the catcher in the rye - Essay Example In many ways, the life of the main character, Holden, resembles that of Salinger. For example, just like Holden, Salinger had a difficult school life that was mainly characterized by poor performance. Also, Salinger lived a lonely quite life, which may be considered similar to that of Holden. The book criticizes the 1950’s culture through Holden. It highlights societal attitudes of ignorance to human conditions. It is the phony nature of Holden’s society that leads him to a nervous breakdown. At the beginning of the novel, Holden describes Pencey as phony. He sees most people surrounding him as phony. On his last evening at Pencey, he picks a fight with his roommate, Stradlater. He is offended by the idea that his roommate gets romantically involved with Jane Gallagher, one of Holden’s ex-girlfriends who he still admires. Holden feels that Stradlater is taking advantage of Jane, and picks a fight. The fight prompts him to leave Pencey immediately. He sets off by midnight and takes a train to New York City. On arrival, he checks into Edmond Hotel and spends two nights there. While there, he is mostly drunken and lonely. One of his most memorable experiences was with a prostitute whom he paid without getting her services. The prostitute turned out to b e unsatisfied and came back for more money. He later meets his Carl Luce, and old acquaintance and Sally Hayes, his on-and-off girlfriend. Both meetings leave him more lonely. He later sneaks into his parents’ house to visit Phoebe, his kid sister whom he’s more comfortable around. Talking to Phoebe brightens him up and he heads to visit Mr. Antolini, his ex-English teacher. He wakes up to find Mr. Antolini petting his head in a perverted way, which upsets him. His view of his society as phony heightens as he walks around his kid sister’s school and he keeps seeing swear words. He visions himself as the Catcher in the rye – the guardian of children.

Art history (Tibetan Buddhist and Mandalas) Essay

Art history (Tibetan Buddhist and Mandalas) - Essay Example ode of ethics based on the idea of causing no harm to others while recognizing the interconnectedness of life, meditation emerged as a strong tool for finding focus and attaining balanced, well-thought-out decisions. This practice has been perfected in Tibet in the Kalachakra tradition and has been expanded into the Western world through the beautiful and fascinating art form of the mandala. The mandala has a basic circular form that causes it to be recognized as a mandala, but can be highly differentiated to reflect the beliefs, customs, practices or traditions of a particular individual or group. Its primary purpose is to facilitate meditation while serving as a reminder of the deity, the code of ethics and the impermanence of nature. Taking a look into the traditions of the mandala, therefore, can help facilitate greater understanding of more modern interpretations of this ancient art form. Traditionally, the mandala, also known as the dkyil khor, is considered to be the visual representation of the spiritual embodiment of Buddha. â€Å"The word dkyil khor means ‘center-circumference’ and describes both the essential geometric structure and ritual significance of mandalas† (George, 2000). Wayman (1980) indicates that the center is the essence of Buddha while the circumference refers to the concept of grasping, enclosing or containing, thus understanding the essence. Through this translation, the necessarily circular form of the mandala as well as the association of it with the ideas of spirituality and enlightenment becomes clear even as the art form has been transferred out of its original context in the Buddhist temples and in the care of the monks and into the larger mainstream Western society. Because these concepts are intrinsic to the art form, they have necessary transferred out as well. Within Western dictionaries and encyclopedias, the term mandala has been broadly defined as a â€Å"geometric design intended to symbolize the universe, and